British Expansion and Policies
British Expansion and Policies
British territorial power in India was built between 1757 and 1856 through four instruments - outright war, the Subsidiary Alliance of Wellesley, the Doctrine of Lapse of Dalhousie, and annexation on the plea of misgovernment. Each instrument produced its own set of annexations, and UPSC tests exactly that mapping.
Conquest of Bengal
| Event | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Battle of Plassey | 1757 | Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daula through the treachery of Mir Jafar; the Company became the real power in Bengal |
| Battle of Buxar | 1764 | Defeat of the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh and Shah Alam II; established British military supremacy |
| Treaty of Allahabad | 1765 | Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha granted to the Company, creating dual government |
| End of dual government | 1772 | Warren Hastings ended the system after the Bengal famine of 1770 |
The dual government of 1765 to 1772 gave the Company revenue rights without administrative responsibility, and the Nawab responsibility without resources. The Bengal famine of 1770, in which an estimated one-third of Bengal's population died, exposed it, and Warren Hastings abolished it.
प्लासी और बक्सर का अंतर याद रखो - प्लासी षड्यंत्र से जीती गई लड़ाई थी, बक्सर वास्तविक सैन्य विजय थी | बक्सर के बाद ही मुगल सम्राट स्वयं कंपनी के अधीन आए |
Subsidiary Alliance
Introduced by Lord Wellesley (1798-1805), the subsidiary alliance required an Indian ruler to accept British troops in his territory, pay for them, keep a British Resident at court, dismiss all Europeans of other nationalities, and conduct no diplomacy without British approval. In return the Company guaranteed protection.
- Hyderabad was the first to accept it, in 1798, followed by Mysore in 1799 and Awadh in 1801
- The Marathas - Scindia, Bhonsle and the Peshwa at Bassein in 1802 - followed after military defeat
- The system disarmed the state while draining its treasury, and rulers often fell into debt and ceded territory
- It has been called a system that made rulers 'lose their independence without gaining security'
Doctrine of Lapse
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) held that a dependent state without a natural heir would lapse to the paramount power, adoption being invalid without British consent. He also annexed Awadh in 1856 on the ground of misgovernment, and Punjab and Sikkim by conquest and treaty.
| State | Year | Ground of annexation |
|---|---|---|
| Satara | 1848 | Doctrine of Lapse - first case |
| Jaitpur and Sambalpur | 1849 | Doctrine of Lapse |
| Baghat and Udaipur | 1850-1852 | Doctrine of Lapse; Udaipur later restored |
| Jhansi | 1853 | Doctrine of Lapse; Rani Lakshmibai's adopted son not recognised |
| Nagpur | 1854 | Doctrine of Lapse |
| Awadh | 1856 | Alleged misgovernment, not lapse |
| Punjab | 1849 | Annexed after the second Anglo-Sikh war |
✗ Awadh was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse | ✓ Awadh was annexed in 1856 on the charge of misgovernment, not by lapse
Wars of expansion
| Series | Years | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Anglo-Mysore wars | 1767-1799 | Four wars; Tipu Sultan killed at Srirangapatna in 1799; Mysore reduced and placed under the Wodeyars |
| Anglo-Maratha wars | 1775-1818 | Three wars; Treaty of Salbai 1782, Treaty of Bassein 1802; the Peshwa's territory annexed in 1818 |
| Anglo-Sikh wars | 1845-1849 | Two wars; Punjab annexed in 1849 after Chillianwala and Gujrat |
| Anglo-Burmese wars | 1824-1885 | Three wars; Burma annexed and later separated from India in 1937 |
Expansion tools: war, subsidiary alliance, doctrine of lapse, misgovernment
Linkage: annexations under Dalhousie are a direct cause of the Revolt of 1857, so read the two topics together. The subsidiary alliance connects to the princely states question in Polity and to integration after 1947, and the Bengal famine of 1770 links to the economic drain topic.
Exam pointer: one to two questions, most reliably a state-to-instrument matching or a chronology. Traps: putting Awadh under lapse, dating Plassey and Buxar wrongly, assuming the subsidiary alliance began with Dalhousie rather than Wellesley, and forgetting that Punjab and Sindh were annexed by conquest and not by lapse. Remember Satara was the first lapse case and Jhansi the most famous.
FAQ
What is the difference between Plassey and Buxar?
Plassey in 1757 was won largely through the treachery of Mir Jafar and made the Company the power behind the Nawab of Bengal. Buxar in 1764 was a genuine military victory over the combined armies of the Nawab of Bengal, the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal emperor, and established British supremacy in north India.
What were the terms of the subsidiary alliance?
The Indian ruler had to station British troops in his territory and pay for them, accept a British Resident, dismiss Europeans of other nationalities, and refrain from independent diplomacy. In return the Company promised protection against external attack and internal rebellion.
Which states were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse?
Satara in 1848, Jaitpur and Sambalpur in 1849, Baghat and Udaipur around 1850-1852, Jhansi in 1853 and Nagpur in 1854. Awadh, often wrongly included, was annexed in 1856 on the separate ground of alleged misgovernment.
60-second recap
- Plassey 1757 by treachery; Buxar 1764 by battle; Allahabad 1765 gives diwani.
- Dual government 1765-1772 ended by Warren Hastings after the 1770 famine.
- Subsidiary alliance by Wellesley; Hyderabad first in 1798, Bassein with the Peshwa in 1802.
- Doctrine of Lapse by Dalhousie; Satara first in 1848, Jhansi in 1853, Nagpur in 1854.
- Awadh annexed in 1856 for misgovernment; Punjab in 1849 by conquest.
- Four Anglo-Mysore, three Anglo-Maratha, two Anglo-Sikh and three Anglo-Burmese wars.