Emergency, Mandal and Coalitions
NCERT Class 12 - Politics in India Since Independence, Chapters 5 and 6
Emergency, Mandal and Coalitions
Three developments reshaped Indian politics after 1970 - the emergency of 1975-77, the implementation of the Mandal Commission recommendations in 1990, and the shift to coalition government from 1989.
The emergency of 1975 to 1977
- Background - economic distress after the 1971 war, rising prices, unemployment, a railway strike in 1974, the Navnirman movement in Gujarat and the Bihar movement led by Jayaprakash Narayan, who called for Total Revolution.
- The immediate trigger was the Allahabad High Court judgment setting aside the Prime Minister's election on grounds of electoral malpractice.
- The emergency was declared on 25 June 1975 on the ground of internal disturbance under Article 352.
- Consequences - suspension of Fundamental Rights, mass preventive detention of opposition leaders, press censorship, and postponement of elections.
- The 42nd Amendment of 1976 curtailed judicial review, extended the term of the legislatures and added Fundamental Duties.
- Elections were held in 1977 and the Janata Party formed the first non-Congress government at the centre; the Shah Commission was appointed to inquire into excesses.
- The 44th Amendment of 1978 replaced internal disturbance with armed rebellion as a ground, required the cabinet's written advice, and made Articles 20 and 21 non-suspendable.
The Mandal moment
- The second Backward Classes Commission, headed by B. P. Mandal, was appointed in 1979 and reported in 1980.
- It recommended 27 per cent reservation in central government jobs and educational institutions for other backward classes, identified using social, educational and economic indicators.
- The report was implemented in 1990, producing intense nationwide agitation and a realignment of politics around caste.
- In Indra Sawhney v. Union of India, 1992, the Supreme Court upheld the 27 per cent reservation, but laid down a 50 per cent ceiling on total reservation in normal circumstances and excluded the creamy layer among backward classes.
- The long-term effect was the entry of backward class leadership into state politics, especially in northern India, which reshaped the party system permanently.
Coalition politics
| Phase | Character |
|---|---|
| 1952 to 1967 | Congress dominance at the centre and in most states |
| 1967 to 1977 | Non-Congress coalitions in states, defection, and the emergency |
| 1977 to 1989 | Janata experiment, its collapse, and the return of Congress |
| 1989 onwards | Minority and coalition governments at the centre, regional parties decisive |
- Coalition governments required common minimum programmes and constant negotiation, which slowed decision making but broadened representation.
- Regional parties gained a share in national power, and the centre became far more cautious in dealing with states.
- Alliances shifted from being formed after elections to being pre-election coalitions with seat sharing.
- Despite frequent changes of government, the basic constitutional framework held, which is the strongest evidence of institutional resilience.
हिंदी संकेत: 44वां संशोधन (1978) ने राष्ट्रीय आपात का आधार "आंतरिक अशांति" से बदलकर "सशस्त्र विद्रोह" किया और मंत्रिमंडल की लिखित सलाह अनिवार्य की। यह आपातकाल का सबसे बड़ा सबक है।
Exam me kaise aata hai
Factual questions ask the date the emergency was declared, which amendment reversed its effects, and who headed the Mandal Commission. Match-the-following links year with event. Application questions ask what the 44th Amendment changed and why.
UPSC / State PSC ke liye
The emergency is the test case for the argument that institutions matter more than intentions - the same constitutional provisions that allowed the emergency also allowed the voters to end it. Note the lasting institutional lessons: the 44th Amendment safeguards, a more assertive judiciary, and a press far more conscious of its own independence.
Yahan confuse hote hain
✗ The emergency was declared on grounds of external aggression | ✓ It was declared on the ground of internal disturbance
✗ Indra Sawhney struck down OBC reservation | ✓ It upheld the reservation with a 50 per cent ceiling and a creamy layer exclusion
✗ The 42nd Amendment protected rights during an emergency | ✓ The 42nd curtailed review; the 44th Amendment added the safeguards
Ek nazar me
- Emergency declared on 25 June 1975 on the ground of internal disturbance.
- Background - economic distress, the Bihar movement under Jayaprakash Narayan, and the Allahabad judgment.
- Consequences - suspension of rights, detention, censorship and postponed elections.
- 1977 elections brought the Janata Party to power; the Shah Commission inquired into excesses.
- The 44th Amendment of 1978 required armed rebellion and written cabinet advice.
- Mandal Commission under B. P. Mandal recommended 27 per cent OBC reservation, implemented in 1990.
- Indra Sawhney 1992 upheld it with a 50 per cent ceiling and creamy layer exclusion.