Chola Administration

The imperial Cholas (c. 850-1279 CE) built the most sophisticated administrative system of early medieval India, remarkable above all for its documented village self-government. Their inscriptions, especially the Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I, describe an elected village assembly system in unusual detail.

The empire and its rulers

Chola power rested on three pillars: the fertile Kaveri delta, a genuine navy that projected power into South-East Asia, and a revenue system built on careful land survey and classification. The Chola navy is the only major naval force in Indian history before the European period to have conducted a successful overseas offensive.

Central and provincial administration

Mandalam (province) → Valanadu (division) → Nadu (district) → Kurram / Ur (village)

• The king was assisted by a council of ministers and a large body of officials called perundanam (higher) and sirudanam (lower)
• Land revenue was normally one-third of produce, assessed after survey and classification of land
• Officers were often paid by assignment of revenue from land rather than cash
• Temples were economic institutions - they held land, employed people, lent money and ran schools
• Two main types of assembly land existed: brahmadeya villages of Brahmanas and non-brahmadeya settlements of cultivators

Village self-government

Three types of assembly are attested. The ur was the general assembly of ordinary landholding villages, the sabha or mahasabha was the assembly of brahmadeya villages, and the nagaram was the assembly of merchant towns. The sabha worked through specialised committees called variyam - for gardens, tanks, justice, gold and the annual supervision.

The Uttaramerur inscriptions describe the kudavolai system of election by lot. Names of eligible candidates were written on palm-leaf tickets, put into a pot, and a young boy drew them out. Qualifications and disqualifications were laid down precisely.

✗ Chola village assemblies were elected by direct popular voting  |  ✓ Members were chosen by lot from qualified candidates under the kudavolai system

Art, temples and legacy

The Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja I and completed in 1010 CE, is the finest expression of the Dravida style, with a vimana of about 66 metres. Together with the temples at Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram it forms the UNESCO group called the Great Living Chola Temples. Chola bronze sculpture, above all the Nataraja, is made by the lost wax (cire perdue) technique and is regarded as the high point of Indian metal casting.

FAQ

What was the kudavolai system?

A method of selecting members of the village sabha recorded in the Uttaramerur inscriptions. Names of qualified candidates were written on palm-leaf tickets and placed in a pot, from which a young boy drew the required number. It was selection by lot from a pre-qualified pool, not a popular vote.

What is the difference between ur, sabha and nagaram?

The ur was the assembly of an ordinary village of landholders, the sabha or mahasabha was the assembly of a brahmadeya village granted to Brahmanas, and the nagaram was the assembly of a town dominated by merchants. Each had its own composition and functions.

Why are Chola bronzes so highly regarded?

Because of the lost wax casting technique, which allowed fluid modelling of the figure in a single pour, and because of the artistic conception of the Nataraja, in which cosmic dance, flame ring, the drum of creation and the dwarf of ignorance combine into one balanced composition.