Society and Economy
Society and Economy
Early medieval society between roughly 750 and 1200 CE was shaped by land grants, the growth of temple economies, the multiplication of castes and the decline of long-distance trade in the north alongside its expansion in the south. Historians debate whether to call this structure Indian feudalism, and both sides of that debate are examinable.
The feudalism debate
| Position | Main argument | Associated historians |
|---|---|---|
| Indian feudalism | Land grants transferred revenue and administrative rights to intermediaries; towns declined, coins became scarce, villages turned self-sufficient and peasants lost mobility | R. S. Sharma, D. D. Kosambi |
| Critique | Indian agriculture rested on free peasant production; there was no manorial system or serfdom; trade and towns continued, especially in the south | Harbans Mukhia, B. D. Chattopadhyaya |
| Integrative model | Instead of decay, this was a period of state formation in new regions through the spread of agriculture, temples and local elites | B. D. Chattopadhyaya, Hermann Kulke |
परीक्षा में सामंतवाद पर सीधा प्रश्न कम आता है, पर कथन आधारित प्रश्न में यह पूछा जा सकता है कि कौन सा लक्षण किस विचारधारा का है | इसलिए तीनों पक्ष एक-एक पंक्ति में याद रखो |
Land grants and their terms
- Brahmadeya or agrahara - villages granted to Brahmanas, usually tax free and often with judicial rights
- Devadana - land granted to temples, which then acted as landlord, employer and banker
- Vishti - forced or unpaid labour, increasingly demanded from cultivators
- Grants were normally recorded on copper plates, which is why copper plate charters are the main source for this period
- Sub-infeudation - grantees granting land further down - deepened the layered structure
Caste, jati and social change
The four varnas remained a theoretical frame, but the working reality was a proliferating system of jatis formed by occupation, migration and the absorption of tribal groups into agrarian society. Newly settled regions produced new castes; scribes, for instance, consolidated as the Kayastha community during this period. Untouchability hardened, and the number of communities treated as untouchable increased.
The position of women narrowed further. Property rights survived mainly as stridhana, child marriage spread, widow remarriage became less acceptable in upper castes, and sati is attested from inscriptions in Rajasthan and elsewhere, though it was never universal. Against this, the Bhakti tradition of the Alvars and Nayanars gave women poets such as Andal a public voice.
✗ Caste in this period was fixed and unchanging | ✓ New jatis were constantly formed by occupation, migration and tribal assimilation
Trade, towns and coinage
The northern picture and the southern picture differ sharply, and UPSC has tested exactly this contrast.
| Aspect | North India | South India |
|---|---|---|
| Towns | Decline of many older urban centres | Growth of temple towns and ports |
| Coinage | Scarce; barter and grain payments common | Continuous coinage, including gold |
| Trade | Reduced long-distance trade after the fall of Roman and Sassanian demand | Active trade with South-East Asia, China and West Asia |
| Merchant organisation | Local shrenis of limited reach | Powerful guilds - Ayyavole, Manigramam, Anjuvannam |
Ayyavole = the Five Hundred of Aihole, the largest south Indian merchant guild
Temple towns such as Thanjavur, Madurai and Kanchipuram grew because the temple concentrated land revenue, employment and pilgrimage traffic in one place. Ports such as Nagapattinam, Quilon and Bhrigukachchha connected India to the Indian Ocean trading world, and Arab merchants settled on the Malabar coast, creating the earliest Muslim communities in India well before the Turkish invasions.
Linkage: this topic underpins the Delhi Sultanate's land revenue system in the next chapter, connects to the Bhakti and Sufi movements as a social response, and links to Economic Geography and to the Modern India chapter on land revenue systems, where the same question of intermediaries between state and peasant returns under the Permanent Settlement.
Exam pointer: usually part of a broader question rather than a standalone one, but statement sets on merchant guilds, temple economy and the feudalism debate have appeared. Learn the names Ayyavole, Manigramam and Anjuvannam, and the terms brahmadeya, devadana and vishti. Traps: assuming all of India de-urbanised - south India did not; and assuming Muslim settlement in India began with the Turkish invasions - Arab traders had settled on the Malabar coast much earlier.
FAQ
What is the difference between brahmadeya and devadana?
Brahmadeya land was granted to Brahmanas, individually or as a group settlement, and was usually tax free. Devadana land was granted to a temple, which used the income for worship, maintenance and staff. Both removed revenue from the state's direct control and created powerful local institutions.
Which were the major merchant guilds of south India?
The Ayyavole or Five Hundred Swamis of Aihole was the largest, operating across the peninsula and overseas. Manigramam and Anjuvannam were also important, the latter associated with West Asian traders on the Malabar coast. These guilds had their own inscriptions, militia and internal rules.
Did towns decline everywhere in early medieval India?
No. Northern India saw urban decline and scarce coinage after the collapse of Roman and Sassanian trade, but south India saw the growth of temple towns and ports supported by Indian Ocean commerce. Treating the whole subcontinent as uniformly de-urbanised is a common error.
60-second recap
- Land grants - brahmadeya, agrahara, devadana - transfer revenue and authority to intermediaries.
- R. S. Sharma argues Indian feudalism; Harbans Mukhia and B. D. Chattopadhyaya dispute it.
- Jatis multiply through occupation, migration and tribal assimilation; untouchability hardens.
- North India de-urbanises and loses coinage; south India grows temple towns and ports.
- Ayyavole, Manigramam and Anjuvannam are the great south Indian merchant guilds.
- Arab traders settle on the Malabar coast long before the Turkish invasions.
Test this chapter now - attempt early medieval India questions in the ExamAtlas UPSC Prelims mock test and find out which of these distinctions actually stick.