Administration and Economy
Administration and Economy
The Delhi Sultanate ran a military state whose administration was built around the collection of land revenue and the maintenance of cavalry. Its central departments, revenue categories and iqta system are the parts UPSC actually tests, because they are the direct ancestors of Mughal institutions.
Central departments
| Department | Head | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Diwan-i-wizarat | Wazir | Finance and revenue; the most powerful office |
| Diwan-i-arz | Ariz-i-mumalik | Military department; recruitment, pay, dagh and chehra; created by Balban |
| Diwan-i-insha | Dabir-i-khas | Royal correspondence and drafting of farmans |
| Diwan-i-risalat | Sadr-us-sudur | Religious affairs, charity and grants; often combined with the office of chief qazi |
| Diwan-i-kohi | - | Agriculture department created by Muhammad bin Tughlaq |
| Diwan-i-khairat and Diwan-i-bandagan | - | Charity and slaves; both created by Firoz Shah Tughlaq |
विभाग और उनके संस्थापक अलग-अलग याद रखो - दीवान-ए-अर्ज़ बलबन का, दीवान-ए-कोही मुहम्मद बिन तुगलक का, और दीवान-ए-खैरात तथा दीवान-ए-बंदगान फिरोज शाह का | यही जोड़ी सबसे अधिक पूछी जाती है |
The iqta system
The iqta was an assignment of revenue from a territory to an officer, called a muqti or wali, in place of a cash salary. In return the holder maintained troops and sent the surplus, called fawazil, to the centre. Iltutmish systematised it, Balban and Alauddin tightened central control over it, and Firoz Shah made it effectively hereditary, which weakened the state.
Iqta = revenue assignment, not land ownership; the muqti collects revenue and maintains troops
✗ An iqta made the holder the owner of the land | ✓ The iqta transferred only the right to collect revenue; the land was not private property
Land revenue and taxes
- Kharaj - land tax on Muslims and non-Muslims alike, the main source of income, raised to half the produce by Alauddin Khalji
- Jizya - a tax on non-Muslims, in theory in place of military service; Firoz Shah extended it to Brahmanas
- Zakat - a religious tax of 2.5 per cent on the wealth of Muslims
- Khams - the state's share of war booty and mines; the Sharia share was one-fifth to the state, and Alauddin took four-fifths instead
- Charai and ghari - grazing tax and house tax, both introduced by Alauddin Khalji
- Village functionaries such as khut, muqaddam and chaudhari collected revenue and were curbed by Alauddin
Economy, towns and technology
The Sultanate period saw urban revival in the north after the early medieval decline. Delhi, Multan, Lahore, Daulatabad, Jaunpur and Cambay grew, and a large slave and craft workforce was concentrated in royal karkhanas. Several technologies spread widely in this period: the spinning wheel or charkha, the treadle loom, paper manufacture, the true arch and dome, and improved water lifting devices such as the Persian wheel or saqiya.
| Change | Effect |
|---|---|
| Spinning wheel | Raised yarn output several times and expanded textile production |
| Paper | Replaced palm leaf and made administrative record keeping cheaper |
| Persian wheel | Improved irrigation in Punjab and the doab, raising cropped area |
| Silver tanka and copper jital | Standardised currency and helped monetise revenue collection |
| Firoz Shah's canals | The Western Yamuna canal system extended cultivation in Haryana |
Trade expanded because the Sultanate connected India to the Central Asian and West Asian markets. Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller who served as a qazi under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, describes flourishing markets, an efficient postal system of dak chauki horse posts and dawa foot runners, and the prosperity of Cambay and Calicut.
Linkage: the iqta is the direct ancestor of the Mughal jagir, and kharaj becomes the base of Akbar's zabti system, so read this topic with the Mughal land revenue material. The Persian wheel and canal building connect to Indian agriculture and irrigation in Geography, and Ibn Battuta belongs with the foreign travellers list in the Sources topic.
Exam pointer: high-yield and frequently asked, especially the iqta system and the difference between kharaj, jizya, zakat and khams. Traps: treating the iqta as private land ownership, assuming jizya was collected from all non-Muslims without exemption - women, children, the disabled and often Brahmanas were exempt until Firoz Shah changed this - and attributing the spinning wheel to the Mughals. Ibn Battuta being a qazi under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, not Firoz Shah, is another tested pairing.
FAQ
What was the difference between an iqta and a jagir?
Both were revenue assignments in place of cash salary. The iqta of the Sultanate was in principle transferable and revocable, and the muqti had wide administrative powers. The Mughal jagir was more systematically linked to mansab rank and was transferred frequently to prevent local roots.
What taxes did Alauddin Khalji introduce?
He raised kharaj to half the produce, assessed by measurement, and added charai, a tax on grazing cattle, and ghari, a house tax. He also removed the privileges of village intermediaries such as khuts and muqaddams so that revenue came directly from cultivators.
How did technology change during the Sultanate?
The spinning wheel multiplied yarn output, paper made records cheaper, the Persian wheel improved irrigation, and the true arch and dome transformed building. Together these changes expanded textile output, administration and agriculture, and they were carried forward by the Mughals.
60-second recap
- Diwan-i-wizarat finance, diwan-i-arz military, diwan-i-insha correspondence, diwan-i-risalat religious.
- Diwan-i-kohi by Muhammad bin Tughlaq; diwan-i-khairat and bandagan by Firoz Shah.
- Iqta is a revenue assignment; the muqti maintains troops and sends fawazil to the centre.
- Kharaj is land tax, jizya a tax on non-Muslims, zakat on Muslim wealth, khams on booty and mines.
- Alauddin added charai and ghari and curbed khuts and muqaddams.
- Spinning wheel, paper, Persian wheel and the true arch spread in this period.